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UMAYYAD POLITICAL THEORY
It may be that the claim of
infallibility of the Imam from the household of the Prophet was a
reaction from some Shiites, on the appointment of the Umayyad rulers
of their sons to succeed them, after them on the pretext of general
good (Maslahah) of the Ummah, as Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan has said
when he appointed his son Yazid, as the Caliph after him. They also
claimed infallibility for themselves, so also absolute powers,
including their demand from the Muslims absolute and unconditional
obedience, even if that constitutes an act of disobedience to Allah,
the Exalted.
It is well-known that the Umayyads who
transformed the Islamic Shura system into a political hereditary
system, based their political theory on the doctrine of ‘Jabr’
(Compulsion) and the divine will, saying that; Allah has chosen them
for the Khilafah, and has given them power, and that they are ruling
with the power (Qudrah) of Allah, and they are acting in line with His
will. They consolidated their rule with a kind of holiness. They
exalted the affair of the Caliphate and the Caliph, and prohibited him
from the fire of hell… describing him in lofty religious attributes
and titles… because to them they (the Caliphs) represent the will of
Allah. (2)
This doctrine became clear in the
statement of Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan when he entered Kufah, after his
agreement with Imam Hassan: “Surely I fought you, so that I will be a
ruler over you, and Allah has bestowed that to me, though you detest
it. (3) And his statement to an Iraqi delegation which came to him in
Syria: “The Earth belongs to Allah, I am the Khalifah, (Vicegerent) of
Allah, whatever I took is for me, and whatever I left for the people,
is a favor from me… it is a rule given to us by Allah. (4)
Ziyad bin Abih, Mu'awiyah’s governor in
Iraq, said in his famous sermon (Al-Batra) to the people of Basrah “ O
people we have become your leaders who repel harm from you. We rule
you with the power of Allah given to us, and we protect you from harm
by means of Allah’s bounty given to us. We have on you (the duty of)
absolute obedience in what we love, and you have on us (as a right),
justice and fair play, in what we have been given charge. Make our
justice and bounty as your right by advising us rightly. (5)
Dahhak bin Qays al-Fihri said, when the
people of Iraq opposed Mu’awiyah’s call to give a covenant on
appointing his son Yazid as Khalifah (after him) in the year 46 A.H:
“What has Hussain or his children to do
with the rule of Allah, wherein He has made Mu’awiyah, His vicegerent
on His earth? (6)
Yazid bin Mu’awiyah said in his funeral
ovation to his father, “Mu’awiyah bin Abi Sufyan was one of the
servants of Allah, favored by Him with the Khilafah, bestowed him and
established his (rule)…. Allah has put on our shoulders what was given
to him” (7).
Rabah bin Zanba’ al –Judhami said to the
people of Madinah when they were reluctant in paying allegiance to
Yazid:
“ We are not calling you to Lakhm or
Judham or Kalb, but we are calling you to Quraish and to whom Allah
has given this affair exclusively i.e. Yazid bin Mu’awiyah. (8)
Baladhuri in ‘Ansab al-Ashraf’ said:
When AbdulMalik bin Marwan wanted to go over to Syria, he delivered a
sermon to the people in Kufah, and showed them the high status of the
ruler, and said to them “ He is Allah ‘s shadow on earth “ He also
motivated them on obedience (of the ruler) and on remaining with the
community. (9)
Hajjaj bin Yusuf has also said to the
people of Iraq, “ The Commander of the Faithful AbdulMalik bin Marwan
was placed in authority in his land by Allah, and is pleased with him
as an Imam on His servants.” (10) Hajjaj was the first to use the word
al-Ma’sum, (infallible) in describing Abdul Malik bin Marwan and that
was in his letter, in which he said: For the servant of Allah,
AbdulMalik, the Leader of the Faithful and the Khalifah (vicegerent)
of the Lord of the worlds, supported with authority, the
infallible from error in words or deeds, through the protection of
Allah, which is necessary for those who possess His affair.” (11).
Marwan bin Muhammad has said in a
congratulatory letter to Walid bin Yazid, in the year 125 A.H: “May
Allah bless the Leader of the Faithful for what has come to him of
authority on His servants and the inheritance of His land. The leader
of the faithful has a special place in the sight of Allah, who
strengthens him with the best of Lands, and he did what Allah showed
him as right, and performed independently what he has take of it. His
rule has been affirmed in the earlier scriptures, by its appointed
time. Allah has favored him with it, of all His creatures, after
seeing their condition. So he put that responsibility on him with all
its hardships and made him in charge of the affairs.”(12).
Historians mention a long letter for
Walid bin Yazid on bay'ah (paying allegiance) to his two sons as crown
princes. He expatiated in it the Umayyad theory of the Caliphate. It
is mentioned therein: “ Allah has appointed the Caliphs to succeed one
another on the principles of Prophet hood, when He took the soul of
His Prophet (peace be upon him), So the caliphs appeared one after the
other, on what Allah has given as inheritance to them of the affairs
of his Prophets (peace be upon them), and made them succeed them on
that. No one opposes them, except Allah that annihilates him. None
leaves their community except Allah destroys him. None despises their
authority and questions Allah’s destiny regarding them, except Allah
gives them power over him and imposes them on him, and makes him as
example and exhortation for others. Likewise Allah does for those who
have abandoned the obedience, of which he has been commanded to stick
to, and to prefer it to anything else. It is through the Caliphate
that Allah protects those on earth, and makes them to depend on it…
anyone who receives a portion of it, is a friend of Allah, obedient to
him and on His right path. He will receive the good of this world and
the next. Any one who deserted and detested and disobeyed Allah
regarding it, he will lose his share, disobey his Lord and also lose
this world and the next. He will be of those overpowered by misery and
wretchedness… Obedience is the foundation of this affair and its
summit, reins, basis, preservation and support, after the words of
Ikhlas (La ilah illa Al-lah)- ‘There is no deity except Allah’, by
which Allah has distinguished between His servants, due to the
abandonment of obedience and its loss and the turning away from it,
and changing it. Due to this Allah destroyed anyone who went astray
and became rebellious, exceeded limits, and left Divine guidance on
right cousins and ways of piety, etc. so stick to the obedience of
Allah regarding whatever comes over to you, or whatever you achieved
and what ever befalls you of events. You should seek Allah’s pleasure
through it, for you have seen how Allah gives status to the obedient
ones, how He has raised their positions, how clear He made their
evidences, prevail and how He obliterated the falsehood of those who
opposed and hated them, who wanted to extinguish the light of Allah in
their possession”.
He then discussed the system of Crown
Prince (Wilayah al-Ahd) and Khilafah through hereditary means saying:
“The affair of this covenant is part of the perfection of Islam, and
the accomplishment of what Allah has bestowed on His people in terms
of great favors. It is also part of what Allah will give of great
reward for anyone who did it and uttered it with his tongue, and part
of what Allah will cause to have great effects on the Muslims… Praise
Allah, your lord, who is kind to you, and the one who has guided you
to in this affair of (crowing a prince), which Allah has made a
source of peace and tranquility upon which you depend. The leader of
the faithful, since his ascension to the throne has been giving utmost
importance and concern to this issue, cause of his knowledge of the
status of this affair with the Muslims, and what Allah has shown them
of the affairs they envy, one towards the other, and of what he gives
to them of what He has destined for them, and what He chooses for him
and them, and what Allah decrees for him and them on that what his
friend who rules (decides) The leader of the faithful found it right
to take a covenant from you similar to the covenant you are fulfilling
now, on similar terms. He know the place of that affair which Allah
has made a source of immunity from error, a success righteousness and
a life, the leader of the faithful has made Al-Hakam bin Amir
al-Muminin and Uthman bin Amir al-Muminin the Caliph after him. The
two are of those whom the Leader of the faithful hopes Allah has
created for this purpose and has shaped and perfected them in all
virtues. Those whom he will appoint to succeed him due to their good
understanding (of affairs), right religions conduct, integrity and
profound knowledge of people’s welfare--- so pay allegiance to
Al-Hakam bin Amir al-Muminin in the name of Allah, and His blessing
and them to his brother after him on total obedience. This is the
issue which you sought to delay and you were in a haste to see you
praise Allah for making it to pass and destining it for you--- We seek
and implore Allah other them whom there is no god… that He blesses,
the Leader of the Faithful and you in what he has decreed on his
tongue of that affair, and that he makes what comes of it, a means of
prosperity and happiness and competition (towards good). That rests
with Him. None has power over that except Him.
The basis therefore, of the Umayyads
calling on the Muslims to obey their Caliphs in absolute sense is the
statement of Allah the Exalted “ Obey Allah and obey the Messenger and
those in authority among you”, and interpreting obedience to mean
absolute obedience in virtue as well as in vice.
THE REACTION OF THE SHIITES
This is what caused a reaction from the
Shiites, who form the main opposition to the Umayyads. They first
asserted the right of the household of the Prophet in the Caliphate
and government, then some of them pointed to Allah’s appointment of
them, and yet another group declared their infallibility. These
concepts that crystallized at the beginning of the second century of
Hijrah, coupled with the factionalization that was like a hurricane in
the Shiite movement, and the internal tussle for leader ship by the
different wings of the household of the Prophet. All these led to the
evolvement of the idea of Divine Imamate for the household of the
Prophet, based on the principles of (Infallibility, Divine text and
Divine Appointment), especially according to a section of them.
On top of the list of those advocating
for this wre the following:
1. A
famous theologian: Abu Ja’far al-Ahwal Muhammad bin Ali Nu'man, nick
named 'Mumin al-Taq', who authored a number of books on this topic
namely, Kitab al- Imamah, Kitab al-Ma’rifah, and Kitab al-Radd ala
Ahl-Mutazilah fi Imamah al-Mafdul.
2. Ali
bin Isma'il bin Shu'aib bin Maitham Tammar Abu al-Hassan al-Maithami,
about whom Tusi said in ‘Al-Fihrist’ “ he was the first theologian to
discuss the doctrine of Imamate and he wrote a book on this,
(al-Imamah) he also wrote 'Al-Istihqaq' and 'Al-Kamil', on the same
issue.
3. Hisham
bin Salim Al-Jawaliqi
4. Qays
Al-Masir
5.
Hamran bin A’yun
6. Abu
Basir, Laith bin Al-Bukhturi al-Muradi al-Asdi
7. Hisham
bin al-Hakam al-Kindi d, 279 A.H) who wrote ‘Al-Imamah’, Al-Radd ala
Hisham bin Salim al- Jawaliqi, Al-Radd ala Shaitan al-Taq ‘Kitab
al-Tadbir fi al-Imamah, Imamah al-Mafdul’, Al-Wasiyyah wa al-Radd ala
Munkiriha’ Kitab Ikhtilaf al –Nas fi al-Imamah and 'Al Majalis fi
al-Imamah'. Sheikh Tusi said of him in the Fihrist he was of those who
started the logical discussions on the Imamate and refined the school
through rational means. He was a skilled theologian (scholastic).
Allama Hilli said of him in his 'Al-Khulasah'. He was the first person
to start discussions on (Imamate text and will) and he refined the
school through rational means.
8.
Muhammad bin Khalil known as al-Sakkak, companion of Hisham bin
al- Hakam was also a theologian. He differed from Hisham in many
things, except the principle of the Imamate. He has a number of books;
some of them are Kitab al-Marifah, Kitab al-Istita’ah, Kitab
al-Imamah, Kitab al-Radd ala man Aba Wujub al-Imamah bi al-Nass. (14)
These scholastics have opined that, “Imamate is an obligation from
Allah. It is among the members of the Prophet’s household, and it is
hereditary in the children of Hussain downwards till the Day of
Judgment. It is established by means of a text (nass) or will or
miracles from the Unseen. Zayd bin Ali was taken aback with this
theory, when he went to Kufah in preparation for his revolt against
the Umayyad ruler, Hisham bin Al-Hakam in the year 122 A. H. That was
when Mumin al-Taq was invited to join his movement but he rejected
that because Zayd was not an Imam chosen by Allah.
Mumin al –Taq said “Zayd bin Ali sent to
me while in hiding. So I went to him, and he said to me: “O father of
Ja’far, what do you say if a visitor came to you…. Will you go out
with him? He said, I said to him, “ If he were your father or your
brother, I will go out with him” He said, “He them said to me”, I want
to go and fight those people, come out with me.’ He said, I said No I
will not do that, may I be your ransom. He said, ‘ He then said to me,
“Do you prefer your soul over nine? He said ‘ I said to him “ It is
only one soul, If Allah has a sign and evidence (Imam) on earth, then
the one who abandoned you is saved, and anyone who go out with you (in
revolt) will be doomed. If Allah has no sign (Imam), then the one who
abandoned you and the one who supported you, are the same”. He then
who said to me” O Father of Ja’far, I used to sit with my father on a
dining arrangement, he used to give me a fat morsel, and he made a hot
morsel cold for me as a sign of his compassion on me. But he did show
compassion on me from the fire of hell, as he taught you religion, but
he did not teach me. Then I said to him, “ May I be your ransom, of
his compassion on you from the heat of hell fire, he did not tell you.
He feared that you will not accept it and you will go to hell-fire,
and he told me, if you accept you are saved and if I am not accepted
he doesn’t mind. If I will be put in the hell-fire, just as Ya'qub,
concealed the dream (of Yusuf) from his children.
Kashi reported in his “Rijal” a
narration similar to the above but he said, “The dialogue took place
before Imam Sadiq and that Zayd bin Ali first asked Mumin al-Taq a
question: O Muhammad, it has reached me that you claim that among the
family of Muhammad (peace be upon him) there is an Imam, whose
obedience is an obligation? He replied with the same response. He then
said to him, “ Your father did not want to tell you, lest you
disbelieve, and there will be no intercession for you.”
Perhaps the first and the most powerful
philosophical dialogues and debates that evolved on the necessity of
the infallibility of the Imam, were the ones conducted by Hisham bin
al-Hakam, which were reported by Saduq and Mufid, and they are as
follows:
Mufid says in al-Irshad: Hisham bin
Al-Hakam conducted a debate with a man from Syria, in the presence of
Imam Sadiq on a mountains edge, by the side of the Haram. The Syrian
man said to Hisham:
“O young man ask me on the Imamate of
this man” i.e. Abu Abdullah – Hisham became angry to the extent of
trembling, then he said to him:
“ Tell me…. Is your Lord more concerned
with His creation than themselves or not?
The Syrian replied, “ My Lord is more
concern His creation. “ Hisham then said “ What has he done for them
in their religion? The man replied. “He commanded them (to obey Him)
and established evidences on what He has commanded and He removed by
that their excuses”.
Hisham then said to him, “ What is that
evidence that he established for them? The Syrian said:
“He is the Messenger of Allah. Then
Hisham said, “ Then after the Messenger of Allah who? “ He answered,
“The Book of Allah and the Sunnah (tradition of the Prophet of Allah
(peace be upon him).” Hisham then said, “ Will the Book and Sunnah
help us today, if we differ on some issues, that our differences will
be terminated, and we will agree among ourselves?
The Syrian said, “Yes Then Hisham said
to him, “ Why do we differ we and you and you came to us from Syria,
opposing us, and you claim that personal opinion is the way of
establishing religious issues, and you admit that opinion will not
lead to one statement being accepted by opposing parties.”
The Syrian became silent, like the one
thinking. Then Abu Abdullah said to him, “ Why are you not speaking?
He replied, “If I said we did not differ, I am being haughty, and if I
said, the Book and the Sunnah will raise our differences, I have lost,
because the two can be interpreted differently. But I have also to ask
him.”
Abu Abdullah said, “ Ask him, you will
find him up to the task.”
The Syrian then said to Hisham: “Who is
more concerned with the creation, their Lord or themselves?
Hisham replied: Their Lord is more
concerned. “Then the Syrian said, “ Has he established for them, who
will settle their differences and clear their misunderstandings, and
explain to them what is right and what is wrong? He replied, ‘yes’,
then the Syrian said: “Who is that?
Hisham then replied: “ At the inception
of the shari'ah, it was the Messenger of Allah, and after the Prophet,
it is someone else. The Syrian said, “ Who is that, other than the
prophet who will stand in his place with a similar evidence?”
Hisham said: “In this our time or before
it?” He replied, “ No in this our time.”
He said: “This man sitting, (i.e. Abu
Abdullah) to whom people travel (to see him). And he tells us of the
news from Heavens, as a heritage from forefathers.”
The Syrian said; “ How can I know that?”
Hisham replied: “Ask him what you want”. The Syrian then said, “I
excuse myself, so ask me”. Abu Abdullah then said to him: “ I will
tell you of your journey and travail – You set out on so-so day--- and
your route was so and so, and so and so passed by you. The Syrian
accepted whatever was described for him of his affairs saying. “By
Allah you have spoken the truth.” (16)
There is another narration mentioned by
Saduq in a long debate that took place in a later date between Hisham,
Dirar and Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi in the courtroom of the Abbasid
vizier Yahya bin Khalid al –Barmaki.
Dirar said to Hisham, “ How is Imamate
established and confirmed? Hisham replied: “ As Allah established
Prophethood.”
Hisham then said: “So he is a Prophet?
Then said: “ No, because Prophethood is established by the Beings in
heavens, and Imamate is established by the people of the earth. So the
ratification of Prophethood is by the angels, and the ratification of
the Imam is by the Prophet (peace be upon him). The two are
established by the will of Allah”.
Dirar then said: What evidence do you
have for that?
His ham replied: The necessity of this
issue is…because there can be only three ways in it. Either that Allah
has waived (responsibility) (taklif) from the creations after the
Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), that he no more commands them
or prohibits them from doing anything, and they have become similar to
wild beast and other animals, which are not responsible. Or that
people, after the Prophet (peace be upon him) have acquired knowledge
similar to that of the Prophet, to the extent that one is not in need
of the other, so that they will all be self-sufficient, and attain the
truth without any differences among them.
Only the third option remains, which is
that they are in need of others, because there must be knowledge to be
established by the Messenger for them, in such a way that, he neither
forgets, nor errs, nor deviates. He will be infallible and protected
from sins, free of errors, one who all need, but who needs none.
He said: “What is the evidence for that?
Hisham answered “Eight evidences four
are features of his lineage and four are his personal features. As for
the four features from his lineage (descent), he will be from a known
race and a well-known tribe and a well –known household, and that the
Prophet pointed to him. There has never been a race in this creation
as famous as the Arabs, of whom was the Prophet (peace be upon him).
If it was permissible that the evidence from Allah (Imam) for His
creation can be from any other race of the non-Arabs, and it would
have been that what Allah wanted to be a source of good will is a
source of corruption. This will not be compatible with the wisdom and
justice of Allah, that He imposes on mankind an obligatory duty that
does not exist. As this is not permissible, so it is not permissible
that (the Imam) will be from other than this race, due to his relation
with the prophet. It is also not permissible that he will be of this
race, if he will not be from this tribe, due to its close relation to
the Prophet (peace be upon him), which is Quraish. As it is not
permissible that he will be from this race, except that he is from
this tribe, in similar ways, it will not be permissible that he (the
Imam) will be from this tribe, except that he is from this household,
for its close relation with the Prophet (peace be upon him). And as
the members of this household, are many, and have quarreled on the
issue of Imamate, due to its lofty position, with each one of them
claiming it for himself, so it is not permissible except that the
Prophet points to him in person, and by his name and his descent, so
that all others will be excluded from claiming it.
As for the four personal features of
(the Imam), they are that, he will be the most knowledgeable person as
regards Allah’s injunctions and precepts, so that nothing small or big
will be obscured to him; and that he should be free from all sins
(infallible); and he should be the bravest of men, and the most
generous of them.
Abdullah bin Yazid al-Ibadi then said: “
Why do you say that he (the Imam) will be the most knowledgeable of
all men?”
Hisham said: “That is because if he is
not conversant with all the injunctions, precepts and laws of Allah,
we cannot be secured that he will not change the injunctions of Allah,
so that anyone who commits an offence will not be punished
accordingly, if it involves cutting up his hand, he will not execute
it: so that he does not establish the limits of Allah on what He has
commanded, being in the ling run, a source of corruption instead of
reform as Allah wishes.
Then he said, “ How do you say that he
is free from sins?”
He replied: “This is because if he were
not free from sins, he will fall into error, so we cannot be secured
that he will conceal what he has done, or conceal his friend or
relation: and Allah will not set this person as his evidence on His
creation.”
He then further asked:” How do you say
that he (the Imam) is the bravest of people?” Hisham replied: “ This
is because that group of Muslims who will resort to him in wars, Allah
says “ And whoever turns his back to them on such a day—unless it is a
stratagem of war, or to retreat to a troop of his own he indeed has
drawn upon himself wrath from Allah…. So if he were not brave, he will
draw the wrath of Allah on himself. It is not permissible that the one
who draws Allah’s wrath will be Allah’s evidence upon his creation.”
Abdullah further asked him.” How do you
say that he is the most generous of people? He replied: “ Because he
is the keeper of Muslims treasures. For if he were not generous, his
soul will crave for their width and he will take it, and that will be
breach of trust: and it is not permissible that Allah will present a
cheat as His evidence on His creation.(17)
Sheikh Saduq reported in his ‘Amali, a
speech of Hisham bin al-Hakam on the philosophy of infallibility
(Ismah), from Muhammad bin Abi Umair who said: “I have never heard nor
ever benefited from Hisham bin Hakam during my long companionship of
him, better than this speech on the features of Imam’s infallibility.
One day I asked him about the Imam. Is he infallible?” He replied
“yes.” Then I said to him. “ What is the nature of infallibility in
him and by what can it be known? He replied:
“ All sins have only (four) causes there
is no more. It is either due to greed or envy or anger or desire.
These are not attributable to him. It is not permissible that he will
be covetous of this world, as it is under his control, as he is the
keeper of the treasures of Muslims, then why should he have greed for
anything? It is also not permissible that he will be envious of one
above him, and there is none above him, then how can he be envious of
one below him? It is also not permissible that he will be angry on
anything of this world, except if it is for the sake of Allah, the
Exalted. Allah has made it incumbent upon him to establish the limits
of Allah (the penalties), and the blame of blamers will not deter him
from that, nor pity will make him shy away from the punishment
prescribed by Allah, until he establishes those punishments. It is
not permissible for him to follow desires and prefer this world to the
hereafter, because Allah has made him to love the hereafter as he has
made him to love this world. Have you ever seen anyone who left what
is better, for a something good, or a soft and smooth garment for a
coarse one or an ever-testing bliss for a transient one? (18)
DIVINE IMAMATE
The theory of Imamate says: Imamate is a
divine affair and the appointment of a new Imam is made through the
intervention of Allah, and there is no room for the wish of the former
Imam in that. Amr bin Ash’ath said that he heard Imam Sadiq saying:
“It seems that you think this affair is in the hands of one of us, He
(Allah) places it where He wishes! No by Allah, it is a covenant from
the Messenger of Allah which names a man then another, till it reaches
its owner.” (19)
Isma'il bin Ammar said that he once
asked Abu al-Hassan, the first (Kadhim) about the Imamate: “ Is it an
obligation from Allah that the Imam must give a will and a covenant
(for the one to come after him) before he leaves this world?” He
replied “Yes” Then he said, Is it an obligation from Allah? “ He
answered: “Yes”. (20)
Yahya bin Malik said that he asked Imam
Rida on the statement of Allah, the Exalted: “ Verily! Allah commands
that you should render back the trusts to those to whom they are due”.
He replied: The Imam return it to the
Imam.” Then he said: “O Yahya by Allah it is not from him (the Imam),
but it is an affair from Allah”. (21)
These are the most important abstracts
in theology that has reached us from the first Imamate generation,
which initiated theological discourse on Imamate, infallibility, text
and will, as mentioned by the scholars who studied Twelver-Imam
Shiites personalities, like, al-Kashi, Najashi, Saduq, Mufid, Tusi and
Hilli. Other later theologians like al-Fadl bin Shadhan bin Khalil
al-Azdi al-Nisapuri (who died in the middle of the third century of
Hijrah). He wrote a number of works namely, 'Masa'il fi al-Imamah',
‘Kitab al-Imamah al-Kabir’ 'Al-Khisal fi al-Imamah', 'Fadl al-Muminin’
and 'Kitab al-Qa'im', and Al- Rawandi, the author of ‘Al-Imamah’ and
Thubait bin Muhammad Abu Muhammad Askari, the companion of Abu Isa
Al-Warraq, he was al-Hilli described him, ‘an intelligent theologian,
and that the book attributed to Abu Isa al-Warraq was written by him,’
Fadl bin Abd Rahman, Abu Sahl Ismail bin Ali Nukhbati (d. 290 A.H) Abu
Ja’far Abdul Rahman bin Qubbah (he died in the middle of the 4th
century of Hijrah), the writer of ‘Al-Insaf wa al-Intisaf fi
Al-Imamah’, Sharif Murtada (d. 441 A.H), the writer of ‘Kitab al-Shafi
fi al Imamah’ and other works.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF INFALLIBILITY
The philosophy of infallibility (of the
Imam) is based on the concept of absolute obedience of those in
authority, and its not being relative, like refuting what the Imam
said or refusing to obey him in disobedience (of Allah), and in vices
if he commands that; or correcting him when his disobedience (fisq)
for Allah is apparent; and when he strayed from the path (of
guidance). This was the same concept that the Umayyad rulers were busy
spreading, as they were demanding the Muslims to obey them in absolute
terms, in what is good or evil. And this is what led the Shiite
philosophers and theologians to in-consistency as regards the
necessity of obeying Allah, who commands the believers to obey those
in authority in the verse: “ O you who believe, obey Allah and obey
the Messenger and those in authority among you…” and the necessity of
absolute obedience of the rulers, even if that involves vices and the
impermissible.
Therefore, these Imamate theologians
assert the necessity of the Imam any Imam being made infallible by
Allah, so that he will not command what constitute disobedience to
Allah, and so as not to make Muslims contradict themselves in obeying
him in what involves the disobedience of Allah, or disobeying the Imam
in that case despite Allah’s command to obey him.
Sheikh Tusi said in ‘Talkhis al-Shafi’:
“What indicates the necessity of the Imam being infallible is what has
been established of his being an example to be emulated. Don’t you see
that he has been called Imam due to that? Imam is one to be emulated,
due to this, it was said that the Imam in prayer must be emulated and
followed… There is also a consensus among the Muslims that the Imam is
to be followed in all aspects of the Shari’ah, even if they differ in
the mode of appointing him. If it is established that he is to be
followed in all aspects of Shari'ah, it is necessary that he is
infallible (ma’sum). Because if he is not infallible, we cannot be
secured in some of his actions, in which he might command us to kill
some people; or to take the wealth of some, and the like, which are
evil. It is incumbent on us to agree with him, by emulating him. It is
not permissible that the Wise will make it compulsory on us emulating
what is evil. If that is not permissible on Him to do that, that
proves that the One whose obedience he has imposed is free from
contracting evil, no one is like that except the infallible.”
Sheikh Tusi rejected the concept of
relative obedience saying. “ If it said: Why do you deny that the
emulation of the Imam is compulsory in what we know to be good, and as
for that we know to be evil, or we doubt its true position, in that
case his emulation is not incumbent! It will be said to him: This will
deny the meaning of emulation completely, and will turn it from its
purpose…. And it will necessarily follow that the Imam himself is
following his subjects in this regard. The contradiction this can lead
to is evident.
Sheikh Mufid said in ‘Al-Nukat al-I’
tiqadiyyah’: “The evidence for the necessity of the Imam being
infallible is: if it is permissible for him to commit sins, and
correcting him becomes compulsory he loses his status in the hearts,
and he will not be emulated. The purpose of appointing him is so that
he will be emulated and followed, so the purpose will be defeated. And
if it is not compulsory to correct him, the necessity of prohibiting
vice or evil is denied. This is null and void. He is the preserver of
the law, if he were not infallible, his addition to or deletion (of
the law) cannot be guaranteed.”(23)
Imamate Shiites believe that the Imams
are like Prophets (peace be upon them) on the necessity of their being
infallibles, as regards all vices and all kinds of disobedience from
childhood to old age to death, intentionally or unintentionally,
because they are the preservers of the law and those establishing it,
similar to the position of a Prophet. Because the need for Imam, is
such that the oppressed can get his right from the oppressor, and also
for the annihilation of corruption and putting an end to strife
(fitnah) .The Imam is compassionate, he prevents the powerful from
transgressing, and encourages people to obey the commandments of
Allah, and abstain from His prohibitions. He establishes the limits of
Allah, and his obligations. He seizes the disobedient ones and gives
corrective punishment to those who deserve it. If disobedience is
possible in his case, and he committed such an act, all these benefits
will be denied, and there will be a need for another Imam to
infinity.” (24)
THE NECESSITY OF A DIVINE SCHOLAR WHO INTERPRETS THE
QURAN
In addition to the issue of obedience
and the necessity of the leader being infallible, some theologians
look at the philosophy of infallibility from another angle, i.e. the
necessity of the need for an interpreter of the Great Quran under the
pretext of the inability of the Muslims in dealing with the Quran and
benefiting from it directly. Kulayni reported in Al-Kafi the oldest
tradition in this philosophy from Mansur bin Hazim who said: “ I said
to the people “ Do you know that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon
him) was Allah’s evidence to His creation? They said: “ yes.” I said
after that” After the demise of the messenger of Allah (peace be upon
him), who was the evidence on Allah’s creation? They answered “ The
Quran”. I looked to the Quran and observed that the Murji'ite, the
Qadarite and the infidel (Zindiq) all present it as their evidence, in
a way that they overcome their opponents, and then I understand that
the Quran can never be evidence without a custodian. Whatever he says
on anything it is the truth. I then said to them: “ Who is the
custodian of the Quran? They replied: “ Ibn Mas’ud is knowledgeable,
so also Umar and Hudhayfah". I said: “All of it? “ They said “ No I
have never found anyone said to know its entirety except Ali. Bear
witness that Ali was the custodian of the Quran. (25).
After that other philosophers and
theologians came and added to that and extended the Hadith in this
sphere. Sayyid Murtada said in ‘Al-Shafi’: “The Imam must be
knowledgeable in all the injunctions of Allah without exception,
otherwise, it necessitates that he will be made custodian of what he
has no means of, and that will mean imposing on him what he cannot
bear. That, which confirms the necessity of the Imam being
knowledgeable in the entire injunctions, is what has been reported
that, the Imam is the leader in all aspects of religion, and the
executor of all judgments, big or small delicate or ambiguous. It is
not possible that for him not be knowledgeable in all aspects of
religion and injunctions.” (26)
Sheikh Tusi said: It has been
established that not all that was needed in the Shari’ah, is based on
absolute evidence from consensus or Ijma' or the like. Not all the
evidences in many cases can be argued in both ways … If that has been
confirmed and Shari'ah and its application has been imposed on us,
then there must be an authority through whom we can reach the truth,
in any issue wherein there are conflicting opinions. That is the Imam
we are advocating.” (27)
He also said: “It is established that
the Imam is the leader in all aspects of religion, and the one
executing all judgments, all rulings, delicate or manifest or
obscured. It is not possible that he will not know the entire
injunctions.” That is his attribute, because what is established in
the sight of those who possess intellect is the evilness of giving the
affair to one who does not know it, even if those who appointed him
have a way of possessing the like of his knowledge of what he rules.
There is no effect to the possibility of his learning and his having
access to the way of knowledge. That is because, even though that is
possible, his leadership cannot be right, if he lacks knowledge of
what has been given over to him.” (28)
Sheikh Tusi puts as a necessary
condition for the Imam prior knowledge of everything, as he rejected
dependence on Ijtihad as regards what will happen in the future or
when there will be need for it. He said: “ If it were said, why
shouldn’t the Imam be not knowing the entire injunctions related to
his rule, only to resort to using juristic analogy (Ijtihad) whenever
he needed to pass a judgment, or he resorts to narrations from
singular reporters, or even he asks scholars, just as the ordinary
person refers to them, or that he withdraws from what he has no
knowledge of till it becomes apparent and clear to him through one of
the means of acquiring knowledge. All this constitutes an accepted way
of worshiping Allah.”
It will be replied: “This is the
statement of one who thinks that we only show as evil the leadership
of the Imam who has no complete knowledge of all injunctions, because
he has no other means of knowledge. We have explained that the
existence of such means is like its non-existence if the knowledge
attributed to Allah is not available. Definitely this kind of
leadership is evil due to the lack of knowledge. There is no need for
us to discuss what they consider means of acquiring knowledge which
the Imam can resort to. This is because, even if it is ascertained
that all of them are means to knowledge and learning, the injunction
will not affect what we have certified. In real fact, most of what the
questioner mentioned, will not lead to true knowledge in our view? As
for Qiyas (analogical deduction), narrations from singular reporters
and Ijtihad, as explained earlier, they do not constitute sources of
knowledge in our view, and so cannot be a means of worshipping Allah.
As for the resorting of the ordinary person to the scholar, to us it
is not possible for him to emulate anyone else, but it is necessary
for him to seek for knowledge by the means that lead to true
knowledge. If that is permissible his case will not be like the Imam.
This is because that was permissible only due to his not being a ruler
over him (or one having authority over him). So it is necessary that
he follow the scholar and act upon that. We only show the evil of
presenting the one without knowledge for his being the authority in
all affairs. We will never permit that because of his being ignorant
of some of (the affairs). As we do not in accordance with our
principles permit that the rulers resort to the scholars, then they
judge based on that, as is allowed by our opponents, due to the reason
mentioned above.” (29)
THE MOST SUITABLE AND THE SUITABLE
Besides infallibility and divine
knowledge seen by Imamate thought as necessary qualities in the Imam
to be emulated, there are other qualities for the Imam also. That is
he must be the best of the Muslims, as the Imamate of the suitable is
not permitted in the presence of the most suitable. He must also be
the bravest of men and the most generous. Sheikh Tusi says: “The Imam
must be better than all his subjects, i.e. he must excel in rewards
from Allah, and also be better than them all in all what he leads
them.” (30)
He also said: “It is necessary that the
Imam should be braver than all his followers, and all what follows of
that quality that affirms his being their leader, in what pertains to
fighting the enemies, which involves bravery. He must be the most
powerful of them in that. This is because, the head is usually better
than the followers whom he leads, as we have shown of the evil of
preferring the better over the best, in what he is better than him. On
his being the most authoritative and powerful, this comes from the law
itself, because the name of Imam is given to only that one that above
whom there is no leader or head. On his being the most understanding
and rational, this is because, he has to have the best of opinions in
any issue, due to being the most knowledgeable in policy and
administration.” (31)
Sayyid Murtada says “ That which makes
it necessary for the Imam to be the best in pious acts and rewards, as
well as in knowledge an all other kinds of virtues related to
religion, above all his subjects, i.e. in the virtues wherein he leads
them, is what we and all rational people know of the evil of making
the better in a particular virtue the leader and head of the best in
that. The Imam is our leader in all aspects of religion, its knowledge
and injunctions, then it is necessary that he will be better than us
in all that.” (32)
FROM INFALLIBILITY… TO (DIVINE) TEXT
After affirming the necessity of
describing the Imam, any Imam, in terms of infallibility, and of being
the best in knowledge, bravery and generosity, and the
non-permissibility of the Imamate of the fallible and the ignorant or
the better (in the presence of the best), and since there is no way of
knowing this except through divine guidance, the Imamate thought
rested on the principle of abandoning ‘ Shura’ as a means of choosing
an Imam. This principle was substituted with the idea of the (divine)
text or the will or miracles from the unseen, which distinguish the
Imam chosen by Allah from all other humans.
Sheikh Mufid says: “The Imam must be
knowledgeable in all injunctions needed by the Ummah, and the most
religious of all his followers. If these fundamentals are available,
it is incumbent on him to declare himself to his subjects through a
text (decree), and an extraordinary and miraculous knowledge. This is
because there is no way of knowing anyone who possesses these
qualities except through a text from the truthful, which he himself
received from Allah or through a miracle”. (33)
Sayyid Murtada also says: “ If it has
been established that the Imam must be knowledgeable in all the
injunctions, it becomes impossible to elect him, but rather there must
be a (divine) text on (his being) the Imam. This is because those who
will elect him are not knowledgeable in all the injunctions, then how
is it possible to choose the one with this quality? “He also says: “
If it has been established that the Imam is our leader in all (aspects
of) religion, and its knowledge and injunctions, It becomes necessary
that he will be better than all of us in all that. And in his being
the most pious and religious, comes the necessity of a clear text on
him, as this cannot be reached through (mere) election.” (34)
He also says: “Know that our belief on
the necessity of the (divine) text and its indispensable nature as
regards the Imamate, has already been explained above, and that is
enough to show that election is invalid. This is because anything that
has been established by the text itself that vitiates or nullifies
election. Know that that which we depend on, on the invalidity of the
election of the Imam, is the exposition of his qualities, which the
electorate have no evidence on, and it is not possible to know that
through rational thinking or ‘Ijtihad’ and these are limited to
All-knowing Allah, like infallibility, superiority in righteous acts
and rewards, and knowledge above all the Ummah. There is no ambiguity
that these qualities cannot be grasped through elections, except by
means of a (divine) text. We did explain also that it is not possible
to assert the validity of election, when we consider the qualities…We
also said: that is an invalid instruction, on the basis that one is
commanded to do something wherein he has nothing to guide him to it,
and no authority to distinguish the compulsory act from what is
not.”(35)
REFERENCES
1- Tarikh
al-Tabari, Vol. 6, P. 170, Al- Imamah wa al – Siyasah, vol. 1, p. 151
2- Hussain
Atwan: Al-Shura Fi al-Asr al-Umawi P. 30 see also Ansab al –Ashraf,
Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah fi al Tarikh, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al – Muluk,
Al –Iqd al-Farid, Al- Kamil fi al-Tarikh, and Tarikh al- Khulafa of
Al-Suyuti.
3- Al-
Bidayah wa al-Nihayah, vol. 8, P. 131
4- Ansab
al-Ashraf, vol. 4, P. 117
5- Jahiz:
Al-Bayan was al- Tabyin, Vol. 2, P. 94, Tarikh al- Rusul wa al- Muluk,
vol. 5, Al-Iqd al-Farid vol. 4, P. 112, Al-Kamil, Vol. 3 p. 449, and
Ibn Abi al-Hadid’s commentary on Nahj al-Balaghah, Vol. 16, P. 202.
6-
Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, vol.1, P .300
7-
ibid,
vol. 1,p. 204
8-
Al-Bayan wa al-Tabyin, Vol. 1,P. 300
9-
Baladhuri: Ansab al- Ashraf, Vol. 5, P. 354
10-
Ibn
Qutaybah, Al- Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Vol. 2 P. 32
11-
Al – Iqd al-Farid, Vol, 5, P. 25
12-
Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, Vol. 7, P. 216
13-
ibid, vol. 7, P. 221
14-
Hilli: Al- Khulasah, P. 93 and p.
178, Mufid; Al-Irshad, P. 280, see also Rijal al – Kashi, Al- Najashi
and Al- Fihrist of Tusi, ‘Ilal al- Shara’i of Saduq, P. 203
15-
Kulayni: Al- Kafi, Vol. 1, P. 174, Tabrisi: Al- Ihtijaj, Vol.
2, P. 141
16-
Mufid: Al- Irshad. PP 278 279
17-
Saduq: Ikmal al- Din, P. 362- 368, Al- Majlisi: Bihar alp
al-Anwar, vol. 11, P. 291
18-
Saduq: Ikmal Amali, P. 363-363, Ilal al-Shara’ I P 204
19-
Ali bin Babawaih: Al-Imamah wa al- Tabsirah min al- Hayrah, P.
165
20-
ibid.
21-
ibid, P. 166
22-
Tusi: Talkhis al- Shafi, vol. 1, P. 192
23-
Mufid: Al- Nukat al- Itiqadiyyah, P. 48
24-
Hilli: Nahj al- Haq wa Kashf al- Sidq, P. 164 Hilli: Minhaj
al-Karamah fi Ithbat al- Imamah, p. 51 (old edition), Muhammad Sadiq
Sadr: Al-Shiah Al- Imamiyyah, P. 126
25-
Kulayni Al-Kafi, Al- Hujjah, P. 169
26-
ibid,
PP. 14-15
27-
Tusi:
Talkhis al-Shafi, vol. 1 P. 108
28-
ibid.
Vol. 1, p. 236
29-
ibid, vol. 1, p. 240
30-
ibid.
Vol. 1, p199-211
31-
ibid.
Vol. 1, p. 264
32-
Murtada: al-Shafi, vol 2, p. 42
33-
Mufid:
Al- Thaqalan al-Kitab wa al-Itrah /numerous treatises, P. 179.
34-
Murtada, op. cit. vol. 2, P. 17 and P. 42
35-
ibid,
Vol. 4 P. 6.
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